THE UN PEACEKEEPING METHOD
By: David Rilley-Harris, Curator, DITSONG: National Museum of Military History (DNMMH)
After the shock of the First World War (1914-1918) the League of Nations was set up as the world’s first intergovernmental organisation designed to prevent conflicts anywhere on earth from developing into a second world war. The League of Nations failed in its mission partly due to United States isolationism and unwillingness to take part, as well as the League’s choice of excluding nations which it deemed unworthy. They failed to interrupt Nazi Germany’s contravention of the arms restrictions placed on Germany in the Treaty of Versailles and did little more to try and prevent the Second World War (1939-1945) than to expel Soviet Russia when they invaded Finland. After the Second World War, the useful vestiges of the League of Nations were added to the newly formed United Nations with the purpose of similarly preventing a third world war. Where the League of Nations began with eight members which grew to 58 members, the United Nations began with fifty-one members and today has 193 members led by the five largest victors of the Second World War (Britain, France, Russia, China, USA). The United Nations has now functioned for nearly 80 years and is currently running 11 peacekeeping operations on three continents. Over the years, the methods of peacekeeping have evolved into more dynamic forms to meet changing needs and to address weaknesses.
The two legs of peacekeeping today are provided by the wide base of member nations that incorporates most of the world. That base provides legitimacy and burden sharing. The burden of costs is spread between the member states with members paying different proportions which are calculated with consideration of each nation’s Gross National Income (GNI) and debt burden. Adjustments are made for countries with low per capita income and there is a minimum and maximum rate to ensure that all countries contribute something, and that no country’s contribution accounts for too high a proportion of the total budget. Other adjustments for special circumstances can be made with the agreement of the United Nations General Assembly. Countries which contribute peacekeeping soldiers pay their calculated proportion of the salaries, allowances, and other benefits. Equipment costs and medical and welfare costs are similarly shared between all member states. The countries contributing soldiers are themselves responsible for the costs for training, preparation, operational support, and any other unforeseen expenses. They also singularly incur expenses for any decision to use advanced equipment or technology and if their national policies and standards require higher soldier pay or equipment costs than expected by the United Nations, the contributing country pays the difference themselves. The benefits of incurring these extra expenses involve improving their country’s reputation and providing strategic and diplomatic advantages.
The United Nations 2022-2024 budget contributions (rounded off):
Peacekeeping operations are authorized and defined in scope by the United Nations Security Council. The purpose and missions of the peacekeepers are determined by the nature of the conflict, with special consideration applied for women, children, and civilians in general. These considerations define the Rules of Engagement (ROE) and the Directive for the Use of Force (DUF). Peacekeeping includes measures to address active conflicts but seeks to assist in diplomatic agreements wherein the peacekeepers can become a buffer between warring parties and sustain peace agreements. Where possible, local and regional forces will be incorporated into the peacekeeping work. Peace enforcement is a term used to describe the peacekeeper response to threats to or breaches of the peace. The complexity of peacekeeping deployment in creating circumstances for a country or region to sustain peace, maintain or enforce the peace, and protect the civilian populations, leads to the current day development of multi-dimensional peacekeeping operations. These operations are usually headed by a Special Representative of the Secretary General (SRSG). The SRSG is the lowest appointment on the strategic level as well as the highest appointment on the operational level. The strategic level is headed by the Security Council above the Secretary General and his Secretariat body, all of whom govern the SRSG. On the operational level, the SRSG is assisted by the dauntingly titled Deputy Special Representative of the Secretary General / Resident Coordinator / Humanitarian Coordinator (DSRSG/RC/HC). Together they oversee the peacekeeping operation in coordination with the United Nations Country Team (UNCT). The operational tasks include the restoration of a State’s ability to provide security and order, strengthening the State’s legal structure, instilling respect for human rights, supporting the emergence of legitimate political institutions, promoting social and economic recovery, and resettlement of displaced populations. These efforts include Quick Impact Projects (QIPs) which are small scale projects often to improve infrastructure or provide short-term employment. Maintaining peace includes engagement with belligerent forces such as the sometimes euphemistically named Disarmament, Demobilisation, and Reintegration (DDR) and Security Sector Reform (SSR). The SSR process and the assistance with elections through the United Nations Electoral Assistance Division (EAD) guide the development of an exit strategy for a peacekeeping force whereafter the UNCT can stay behind to maintain nation-building programmes. Exit strategies include attempts to organise local and regional structures to assist or replace the United Nations presence.
The twenty-first century has seen substantial growth in non-United Nations peacekeeping operations which are often also authorised by the United Nations Security Council. These have included operations performed by the African Union (AU), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the European Union (EU), the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). While the United Nations is often criticised for its shortcomings there is no arguing that it has had many successes. United Nations peacekeeping continues to be supported by most of the countries on earth and despite the numerous conflicts which have developed worldwide, 80 years on no third world war has yet resulted.
