Women’s anti-apartheid resistance movements

During the 1910s, the Union of South Africa introduced pass and native laws, which sparked several resistance campaigns across the country. These pass laws were a key component of the apartheid regime’s oppressive policies. Women’s anti-pass protest campaigns gained momentum in the 1950s. During the 1980s the South African government decided to abolish the oppressive pass laws and replaced it with a new green ID book for all races in South Africa. In the post-apartheid era (1990s), South Africa recognised the crucial role of women by declaring the 9th of August, National Women’s Day, a celebration of the invaluable contributions and achievements of women.

Former pass laws required African women to carry passes (identity documents, also known as the ‘dompas’) to regulate and restrict their movement and employment. It was a ‘domestic passport’ that limited African women’s ability to travel, work, and live where they choose. The Native Lands Act of 1913, confiscated land from African people, forcing them to work on white-owned farms and in urban areas. This legislation economically exploited African women by forcing them into low-paying domestic work. It was deeply rooted in racial segregation, reinforcing apartheid policies. Additionally, it contributed to a lack of representation, as African women had no voice in government. The social injustice was further compounded by pass laws, which perpetuated gender-based oppression and family separation. Early resistance to these laws by women primarily took the form of passive protest.

Figure 1. African women protesting against pass laws in Bloemfontein, Free State, in 1913 (Source Image: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloemfontein_anti-pass_campaign).

In March 1912, a group of Black and Coloured women from the Orange Free State sent a petition, signed by 5,000 people, to Prime Minister Louis Botha against pass laws. Subsequently, failure to get a response, about six women were assigned to meet Henry Burton, the Minister of Native Affairs, but, as usual, they were ignored. Frustrated, the women abandoned passive resistance and embraced more aggressive anti-pass laws actions, including protests, marches, petitions, boycotts, and civil disobedience, such as defiance campaigns. As a result, in May 1913, around 200 African women, led by figures like Charlotte Maxeke and Cecilia Makiwane, staged a protest against the pass laws at the Mayor’s office in Bloemfontein. On the 28th and 29th of May, hundreds of women marched through the streets of Bloemfontein, chanting slogans and demanding an end to the pass laws, which restricted their freedom of movement and forced them to carry their identification passes at all times. In acts of defiance, they publicly destroyed their passes by ripping them and burning them. These protests led to arrests at various places, including Bloemfontein, Jagersfontein and Winburg in the Orange Free State. 

Some notable leaders of the 1913 anti-pass laws protest: Maxeke and Makiwane

Figure 2. A young Charlotte Maxeke (Source Image: Derek Du Bruyn, “Women’s Month 2021 The year of Charlotte Maxeke, August 5, 2021, CULNA articles: National Museum Publications).

Charlotte Maxeke OM, RRC, DStJ

Charlotte Makgomo (néé Manye) Maxeke (7 April 1871-17 October 1939) became a prominent figure in the anti-apartheid movement and gender-based oppression. Maxeke was a pivotal figure in organizing women’s resistance to apartheid throughout her life. She played a key role as a founding member of the African National Congress (ANC), which was originally known as the South African Native National Congress (SANNC) when it was established in 1912.

Charlotte Maxeke was the first black South African woman to earn a university degree, graduating with a B.Sc. from Wilberforce University in Ohio, USA. She was a leader and organizer of the 1913 anti-pass laws protest in Bloemfontein and organizer of the Bantu Women’s League (later renamed to Women’s League of the African National Congress [ANCWL] in 1948). Maxeke was an advocate for women’s education, property rights and voting rights, and is often revered as the “Mother of Black Freedom” in South Africa”.

Her legacy lives on through institutions like the Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital in Parktown, Johannesburg, named in her honour. Maxeke inspired generations of women’s activists, including Ida Mntwana, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela and Albertina Sisulu. Maxeke also paved the way for future anti-apartheid movements. She championed women’s empowerment and gender equality, demonstrating exceptional leadership and courage in the face of oppression.

Cecilia Makiwane (1880-1919)

Cecilia Makiwane was a pioneering South African nurse, educator, and activist. She supported the 1913 anti-pass law protest and was the first black woman to formally train as a nurse in South Africa (1902). She became a leading figure in the fight against apartheid and gender-based oppression. Makiwane worked and served at the Lovedale Hospital (Eastern Cape) for a considerable period.

Figure 3. Portrait of Cecilia Makiwane (Source Image: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecilia_Makiwane).

Cecilia co-founded the South African Native Nurse Association in1914 and was an advocate for improved healthcare and education for Black South Africans. As an active member of the ANC, she supported women’s suffrage and played a key role in the anti-pass laws movement, including the 1913 protest in Bloemfontein. Makiwane paved the way for future generations of Black nurses and healthcare professionals, significantly contributing to the development of nursing, education, and training in South Africa. She demonstrated exceptional leadership and dedication to improving healthcare and social justice. In recognition of her legacy, a statue was erected by the nurses of South Africa at Lovedale Hospital in 1977. Additionally, a hospital in Mdantsane township, Eastern Cape, bears her name, and the South African government introduced the Cecilia Makiwane Nurse’s Recognition Award to honour healthcare professionals in her memory.

Significant short-term outcomes of the resistance to the 1910s anti-pass laws include:

• Temporary suspension of pass laws for women (1913-14).
• The establishment of the Native Women’s Association (1913).
• Increased awareness and mobilization for future anti-pass law movements.

While the long-term outcomes include:

The establishment of the African National Congress Women’s League (ANCWL) in 1948 was a pivotal moment in the history of South African women’s activism. It was an impetus for future anti-apartheid campaigns. Women’s rights and empowerment became central to the anti-apartheid struggle movements such as the Federation of South African Women (FSAW/FEDSAW) established in 1954 and the Black Sash (Sash) found in 1955.

Figure 4. Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW) logo (Source Image: SA History Online).

Establishment of the Federation of South African Women (FSAW/FEDSAW) in 1954

The Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW) became a leading multi-racial women’s

organization in South Africa, with the mandate to unite women from different racial and ethnic groups.

FEDSAW’s objectives include:

• Advancing women’s rights and gender equality.
• Opposing apartheid laws and policies.
• Supporting and aligning with broader anti-apartheid movements.
• Providing education and training opportunities for women.
• Fostering unity, solidarity and collaboration among women from diverse backgrounds. 

Some notable leaders of FSAW include:

• Idah Mntwana (First President of FEDSAW and the ANCWL)
• Lillian Ngoyi
• Rahima Moosa
• Helen Joseph
• Sophia Williams-De Bruyn
• Ray Alexander Simons
• Amina Cachalia

The FEDSAW played a significant role in organizing the 1956 Women’s March against the apartheid government’s pass laws. On August 9, 1956, a historic protest took place in Pretoria, where thousands of women from diverse racial and ethnic groups gathered to protest the oppressive pass laws enforced by the apartheid government. The women marched to the Union Buildings in Pretoria – the seat of government – to deliver a petition with over 100,000 signatures to Prime Minister J.G. Strijdom. The protest was a response to the government’s introduction of the “dompas” or Reference Book, which required African women to always carry a passbook, controlling their movements and restricting their freedom of movement. This protest was a powerful statement against the pass laws and the broader system of apartheid.

Chanting the slogan, “Wanthint abafazi, wthint’ imbokodo!”, which translates to “You strike a woman; you strike a rock”, the protest became a rallying cry against the anti-apartheid movement. FEDSAW also participated in various other anti-apartheid campaigns, protests and petitions. Its legacy continues to inspire women’s activism and gender equality initiatives in South Africa today.

Establishment of the Black Sash (Sash) in1955

The Black Sash was a non-violent resistance movement of white women in South Africa, founded in 1955 with the mandate to oppose the apartheid government’s policies and laws. Initially known as the “Women’s Defence of the Constitution League”, it was formed by a small group of predominantly English-speaking, middle-class women. Over time, the organization grew into a platform for liberal women to oppose apartheid government policies and laws through marches, convoys, demonstrations, and vigils. It became known as the Black Sash because of the black sashes worn by its members as a symbol of mourning for the loss of democracy and human rights.

Figure 5. A Black Sash demonstration, c. 1955/60 (Source Image: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sash).

Some notable leaders of the Black Sash movement in South Africa include:

• Jean Sinclair
• Ruth Foley
• Helen Newton.
• Sheila Lapinsky
• Mary Klingenberg
• Dorothy Clemitson

The Black Sash’s mandate included monitoring and exposing human rights abuses, providing support and assistance to victims of apartheid, and campaigning against discriminatory laws and policies. They promoted non-violent resistance and civil disobedience, notably protesting the pass laws and supporting the 1956 Women’s March. They also provided aid to political prisoners and their families, conducted research and publishing reports on human rights violations. The Black Sash played a significant role in highlighting the injustices of apartheid and advocating for change, ultimately contributing to the dismantling of the apartheid regime.

Conclusion

The pass and native laws ignited resistance campaigns from 1910 to the 1950s, prompting women to mobilize against the oppressive system. Initially they engaged in passive resistance campaigns, which were not effective as they were ignored. In response, women shifted to more radical forms of protest including anti-pass laws marches, boycotts and demonstrations. Women played a crucial role in South Africa’s liberation struggle, contributing significantly to the fight against apartheid, oppressive laws, and gender inequality from the pre-colonial era until today.

Though often overlooked or undervalued, women’s bravery, resilience, and leadership were essential to the struggle for freedom. They faced unique challenges, including gender-based oppression, detention, and harassment, but continued to fight for a democratic and equal society. Women’s legacy inspires the ongoing struggle for gender equality, social justice and human rights in South Africa and beyond.

The pass laws were eventually repealed in 1986, and post-1994, the contributions of women’s anti-pass laws resistance movements were honoured. In honour of their efforts, the 9thof August was declared and is celebrated as National Women’s Day in South Africa.

Works Cited

Burton, M.I. (2015). “THE BLACK SASH: Women for Justice and Peace.” Jacana Media: Cape Town.

Du Bruyn, D.  (2021). “Women’s Month 2021: The Year of Charlotte Mannya Maxeke” National Museum Publications: Online Article.

Daluxolo, M. (2016). “The remarkable life of Charlotte Maxeke” The Heritage Portal: Online Article.

Ndhlovu, T.C. (n.d). “Protest Against Pass and the Hertzog Natives Bills” Ditsong Museums of South Africa: Online Article.

South African History Online. (n.d.). “Cecilia Makiwane”. Available at https://ww.sahistory.org.za/people/Cecilia-makiwane  access 14 September 2024.

South African History Online | Skylar Jayes  (n.d.). “Federation of South African Women”. Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/federation-south-african-women-skylar-jayes   access on 17 September 2024.

Wikipedia – “Black Sash”. Available at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sash   access on 11 September 2024. 

Wikipedia- “Ida Mntwana”. Available at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ida_Mntwana    access on 17 September. 2024.

Wikipedia- “Pass Laws”. Available at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pass_law   access on 16 September 2024.